Each time, the swelling evolution attains a plateau corresponding to the end of swelling. Since expansive soils are present in all 50 states, it is not possible to simply avoid expansive soils. Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Gandhinagar, India, Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, Kharagpur, India, You can also search for this author in These volume changes can either in the form of swell or in the form shrinkage. Int J Earth Sci Eng 4(6):4245, Al-Mukhtar M, Khattab S, Alcover JF (2012) Microstructure and geotechnical properties of limetreated expansive clayey soil. ISBN-10: 0132496348. As for mitigation, adequate methods to prevent the swell effect should be formulated. (reaffirmed 1987). Plaisted, M. D., and Zornberg, J. G. (2011). For instance, the soil swells during the high humidity season with induced deformation in a retaining wall. Tiwari, N., Saytam, N., and Patva, J. Although expansive soils can be located in almost every state, the problems related to expansive soils are the most severe and widespread in California, Nevada, Arizona, Colorado and other western/southern states. reinforced concrete wall subjected to active pressures induced by expansive clays. It is possible to build successfully and safely on expansive soils if stable moisture content can be maintained or if the building can be insulated from any soil volume change that might occur. By referring to Sridharan and Prakash (2016), this specimen has low activity and a low probability to swell. (A). The more water they absorb, the more their volume increases. On the other hand, when expansive soils dry out, they decrease in volume and shrink. 4th Indian reprint, Pearson Education, Delhi, Fang HY (1991) Foundation Engineering Handbook, 2nd ed., Van Nostrand Reinhold Publishing Company, Ola SA (1975) Stabilization of Nigeria lateritic soils with cement, bitumen and lime. Financial Support from IIT Kharagpur is gratefully acknowledged. In case of Lime the reduction in strength may be due to formation of the silica gel or excess Lime content beyond the optimum content may act as a lubricating agent between two-soil particle and reducing the shear resistance. Bouassida, M., Ben Ouezdou, M., and Trabelsi, H. (2006). Sci. Determination of free swell index of soils, Sivapullaiah PV, Sridharan A (2005) Mini compaction test apparatus for fine. expansive soils. Expansive soils behave differently from other normal soils due to their tendency to swell and shrink. Then, the specimen settlement started. Ser. In case of non-expansive soil, it was 3.5 times higher in Lime than RHA treatment. doi:10.1007/s10706-010-9341-5. The liquid limit and plastic limits were determined as per IS: 2720 (part 5)-1985 [].The pH for both the soils provided in Table 1 has been found out as per IS: 2720 (part 26)-1987 [].The plasticity index is accounted as the numerical difference between . Civil Eng. ASCE Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering 24(6):707714, Yadu L, Tripathi RK, Singh D (2011) Comparison of fly ash and rice husk ash stabilized black cotton soil. Soils with smectite clay minerals, including montmorillonite and bentonite, have the most dramatic shrink-swell capacity. In this regard, several contributions have been published (Hussain and Dash, 2011; Plaisted and Zornberg, 2011; Gueddouda et al., 2013; Aniculaesi and Lungu, 2019). Particle size analysis is an important early assessment in the soil classification process. Annually, billions of dollars are spent worldwide in repairing the severe damage that currently affects constructions as a result of the swell phenomenon. The swelling phenomenon in expansive clays is complex and arises from an electrochemical process. New York City: McGraw-Hills Inc., U.S.A., 312316. The more of these minerals that are present, the greater the possibility of expansion when moisture is introduced. Also, it is noted when Cc/Cs ratio exceeds 15, the swell pressure is almost zero. Over 50% of these areas are underlain by soils with abundant clays of high swelling potential. Determination of liquid and plastic limit (second revision), IS: 2720 (Part 26)-1987. Hence, the Tunisian Ministry of Equipment, building and infrastructures have made it a priority of special attention when designing foundations on expansive clays. the expansive clays by non-expansive soils to the depth of influence of expansive clays, (2) Ponding the expansive soil area before construction, (3) Min-imizing expansion by moisture-density control, (4) Stabilizing with chemicals, and (5) Structural modi-fications. Expansive clays have become a worldwide concern in the field of geotechnical engineering because of the problems they cause in several countries. Without precautions, canals can be destroyed by foundations built on expansive clays (Elarabi, 2010). Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. When a soil contains a large amount of expansive minerals, it has the potential of significant expansion. Whilst, in the warm season, the expansive soil shrinks, then fissures appear (Figures 3A,B) which will be filled by dust or also by plants growing in it. Expansive soils alsoshrink, compress when they dry out. Compression index (Cc) and the swelling index (Cs) are determined from an oedometer test during which the tested soil specimen is permanently submerged, hence full saturation condition applies for the tested soil specimen during loading and unloading steps. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms. Technol. Div. Civan, F. (2016). The original contributions presented in the study are included in the article/Supplementary Material, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author. 7, 754761. doi:10.3389/fbuil.2021.754761. Expansive soils shrink and swell in response to soil moisture levels. Oedometer swell test is applied to Case 2. [1] Soils with a high content of expansive minerals can form deep cracks in drier seasons or years; such soils are called vertisols. The usefulness fluctuations occur) is small and where a suitable replacement material is available. Building and Road Research Institute. Whilst when the Cc/Cs<10, one should consider calculating the swelling pressure. FIGURE 11. FIGURE 12. Cracks in expansive soil: Desiccation cracks in soil caused by drying. In this study, two distinct oedometer tests are proposed: only with expansive clay sample (Figure 9A), with expansive clays sample plus a granular layer (Figure 9B). S1 expansive clay characteristics. First, the article suggests a new approach for characterizing expansive soils from oedometer test results and, second, the mitigation of swelling phenomenon by using a granular material, as an interface tested in a laboratory, for reducing the swelling pressure on foundations. Inexpensive adjective. doi:10.1016/b978-0-12-801898-9.00005-9. Countless buildings in many cities across the globe, both large and small, are built on expansive soils. However, some areas are underlain by soils which have been transported by wind, water or ice. Cracks that develop after expanded soil has dried allow more water to penetrate deeper into the soil causing more damage as time goes on. Swelling or expansive clays increase in volume, while loessial collapsing soils decrease in volume when theirmoisture content increases under constant applied stress. 121, 641663. The interpretation of the results and main findings are addressed in the final section. J Eng Geol 30:141149, Saeed KA, Kassim KA, Yunus NZ, Nur H (2013) Characterization of hydrated lime-stabilized brown kaolin clay. Expansive Soils and Practice in Foundation Engineering, in Louisiana Transportation Conference, Baton Rouge. Expansive soils have the ability to drastically swell based on the amount of expansive minerals and moisture that is present in the soil. This phenomenon is reversible when the water content decreases due to evaporation, evapotranspiration and absorption by the roots (Figure 1). TABLE I. Aniculaesi, M., and Lungu, I. Lahmadi, A., Titoum, M., and Bakir, N. (2013). First, identify if the soil on your . Expansive clays have an expanding crystal lattice in a 2:1 ratio; however, there are 2:1 non-expansive clays. PubMedGoogle Scholar. *Correspondence: Mounir Bouassida,
[email protected], Characterization of expansive soils and mitigation of swelling phenomena, View all
In addition, these recommendations often include removal of the expansive soils, importation of non-expansive soils, soil chemical treatments, a post-tensioned or structural floor foundation, gutters, and downspouts. IOP Conf. FIGURE 13. [2], Mitigation of the effects of expansive clay on structures built in areas with expansive clays is a major challenge in geotechnical engineering. Expansive soils must be identified during the reconnaissance and preliminary stages of a site investigation in order to determine the best sample and testing methods to use. Cc:Compression index; Cs: Swelling index; : unit mass; : stress; f: final applied stress level; s: swelling pressure; :deformation; l: thickness of the expansive clay; l: upward swelling displacement; HG: thickness of granular material layer; HS: thickness of expansive clay layer; D: dimension; ENIT: National Engineering School of Tunis; UTM: University of Tunis El Manar. Master's thesis (College Station, Texas: Texas A&M University, USA). Soc. (2021), the high cost associated with maintenance and repairing is comparable to other sources of damage (subsidence, inadmissible settlement, etc). New York: Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company Inc. Chen, F. H. (1988). J Eng Geol 30:141149, Saeed KA, Kassim KA, Yunus NZ, Nur H (2013) Characterization of hydrated lime-stabilized brown kaolin clay. Moving soil exerts tremendous pressure on paving, footings, and foundations. Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) tests were carried out for different curing periods of 0, 3, 7, 21 and 28days. The permeability coefficient of the lime-treated soil is larger than that of the untreated expansive soil under the same compactness; however, for the approximate dry density, the difference of . J. Clay and Peat (2015). Have you ever wondered why the Leaning Tower of Pisa leans? In this experiment, the clay layer covering the bottom 1cm of the ring thickness, under porous stone and sand layer, is loaded with a total of 0.43kPa. Meanwhile, there is a high probability of cracks appearance in the soil. Then, which methods are suitable for measuring the swelling pressure. It was observed that UCS of Lime treatment is approximately 3 times higher than that of RHA treatment. As the name implies, expansive soils are expansive. Click to Enlarge. (1989). remains constant. Determination of free swell index of soils, Sivapullaiah PV, Sridharan A (2005) Mini compaction test apparatus for fine. Holtz, R. D., Kovacs, W. D., and Sheahan, T. C. (2011). 251404N, 1101048E), southern China, labeled as Soils 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. Illite is also a non-expansive clay that is often used in ceramics. In a typical year in the United States, they cause a greater financial loss to property owners than earthquakes, floods, hurricanes, and tornadoes combined. Expansive soils contain minerals, such assmectite clays, that are prone to absorb copious amounts of moisture. Since 1994 Mintek Resources, Inc. has provided solutions to the Environmental, Construction, Agricultural, Oil & Gas, Waste Water Treatment, Industrial markets & more. Then, the specimen stabilized at this deformation level. Learn more. prepare a soils report to identify the expansive soils and give the builder recommendations to build a home that will withstand expansive soil. Here at Dalinghaus Construction Inc., we talk a lot aboutfoundation settlementandfoundation heave. J Civil Eng Urbanism 3(1):1218, IS: 2720 (Part 5)-1985. This case, illustrated in Figures 13A,B, 1cm of the oedometer ring thickness is filled with expansive soil S1 and 0.9cm remaining with compacted sand (Sand = 1.806g/cm3; wiSand = 5%; 1mm < D 1.250mm). In this paper, swelling deformation and pressure tests were conducted to clarify the effects of the initial water content on the swelling properties. The development of autonomous mobile robots is increasingly attracting the attention of large groups of researchers. Local occurrences
A sagging or uneven roof can also be the result of soil expansion and shrinkage. 1 (1). The best way to conclude if soil is expansive is through site specific laboratory testing. Treating fine grained soils with a calcium-based reagent, such as lime, can modify the clay portion of soils and reduce the shrink/swell potential. * 1855 , Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society (volume 9, page 205) An effectual and unexpensive mode of Protecting Wall-Trees from Spring-Frosts. Read the following articles to get a better understanding of the signs and symptoms: If you think that you might have expansive soils and are concerned it might be impacting your home, health, or peace of mind, click on our link below for a FREE foundation inspection if you live in Central AZ or Southern California , Your email address will not be published. Kaling Taki . Station, Vicksburg, MS. Report No. - 51.255.122.1. The proposed characterization method is based on the Cc/Cs ratio by using data collected from four (04) case histories and selected ones from others countries (Algeria and United States). The Colloidal Activity of Clays, in Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation Engineering, Switzerland, 5761. Gueddouda, M. K., Goual, I., Lamara, M., and Goual, S. (2013). Hoboken, NJ, USA: Prentice-Hall, 590. See our article: Homeowners Insurance and Geologic Hazards. The study focusses on comparative analysis of mechanical properties of Bentonite (expansive soil) and Kaolinite (non-expansive soil) treated with Lime and Rice Husk Ash (RHA). Fun Facts with Brian Each year in the United States alone, expansive soils cause$2.3 billiondollars in damages to houses, roads, pipelines, and other structures. According to Mostafiz et al. Less than 50% of these areas are underlain by soils with abundant clays of slight to moderate swelling potential. Soil Mech. TABLE 3. (2012). This is because the contact between the granular material particles can be a point, line or surface. Determination of liquid and plastic limit (second revision), IS: 2720 (Part 26)-1987. PubMedGoogle Scholar. It has received 3 citation(s) till now. Characterization of Expansive Clays. Inexpensive definition, not expensive; not high in price; costing little. Shrinking-swelling of clay under the Effect of Hydric Cycles. These areas are underlain by soils with little to no clays with swelling potential. These parameters are respectively governed by parent geology and construction practices prevalent in an area. Table 5 illustrates the vertical displacements and the final stress levels for both cases. 2023 Springer Nature Switzerland AG. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Photo. This article is about natural soils that swell. Other key factors include initial water content, void ratio, plasticity index and density. relatively low in price or charging low prices; 'it would have been cheap at twice the price'; 'inexpensive family restaurants'; Chen, F. H. (1975). The research results indicate that the soil in Gedebage is expansive soil that has very high swelling properties with a Plasticity Index (PI) value of 48.09%. beidellite, vermiculite, attapulgite, nontronite, and chlorite. A Quarter Century of Geotechnical Research - Chapter 4: Soil and Rock Behavior. Tuesday, January 23, 2018 An Overview Expansive soils, also known as soils with high shrink-swell potential, are common in various geographic regions, especially the central portion of North America. It is easy to see the telltale sign of expansive soils, cracks in dry soil, around homes or on specific job sites. He now manages the marketing department and creates everything that you see from us digitally. Unreinforced concrete wall subjected to active pressures induced by expansive clays. This article is published in Vadose Zone Journal.The article was published on 2017-11-01. So, lets unpack this a bit. This stress/pressure results in signs and symptoms that can be traced directly back to foundation issues instigated by expansive soil. This article first introduces a new method of characterization of expansive clays after oedometer test results performed on intact saturated clay specimens. Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons. This method of characterization is in accordance with Chen (1988) who stated the swell potential is low when the swell pressure is lower than 50kPa. The linear shrinkage test was conducted on elongated clayey soil samples to measure shrinkage deformation when the samples were placed in a brass mould and dried in an oven for 24 hours at a . Foundation Analysis and Design. Expansive Soils are soils that have the ability to shrink and/or swell, and thus change in volume, in relation to changes in their moisture content. Then, in colder areas of the great USA, frost can expand water by a whopping 9%! The American Society of Civil Engineers has estimated that as high as one in four houses in the United States has some form of damage caused by expansive soils. Inexpensive adjective. (Check out our5 Types of Residential Foundations Popular in America: A Brief Foundational Overview. Oedometer parameters of clayey specimens. Indian Standard IS:1498 (1970). Every year they cause billions of dollars in damage. Kalantari, B. moisture content changes. When treating soils with a lime-based reagent, the potential of the shrink / swell cycle is reduced, extending the life span of your pavement or building structure. Given the swelling behaviour of this sample, an oedometer swell test was performed and discussed hereafter. The damage done by expansive soils is then attributed to poor construction practices or a misconception that all buildings experience this type of damage as they age. The amount of expansive minerals such as montmorillonite, vermiculite and some sulfate salts also affect how much a soil can expand. That way, they can be properly treated to produce a structurally stable base for construction operations to build upon. Google Scholar, Nalbantoglu, Z (2006) Taylor & Francis Group, London, UK, Basha EA, Hashim R, Mahmud HB, Muntohar AS (2004) Stabilization of residual soil with rice husk ash and cement. Mahamedi, A., and Khemissa, M. (2013). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. Expansive soils behave differently from other normal soils due to their tendency to swell and shrink. Geotech Geol. Proc. Skempton, A. W. (1953). After 01h 38min from the beginning of the free swell test, the applied load to the specimen is increased to the observed swelling. During time, the swelling rate decreases; in fact, in the intervals time (0; 2000s); (2000; 4,500s); (4,500; 5,000s); (5,000; 6,000s), the swelling rates are equal to 22.4nm/s, 38.5nm/s, 17.1nm/s, 36nm/s and 15nm/s, respectively. Prediction of Swelling Potential for Compacted Clays. Every year they cause billions of dollars in damage. 5%, 10%, and 15%. There is a strong correlation between swelling characteristics and basic soil parameters (Kim et al., 2013). The swelling and shrinkage behaviour of clay is a very dangerous phenomenon that leads to several kinds of damage and huge repair costs. (A) Swelling pressure applied to a foundation in contact with an expansive clay layer. As ions are retained by clay particles in expansive soils (Figure 2B), there is a movement of water from low ionic concentration areas to high ionic concentration areas inside the clay. Second, a novel mitigation method of the swelling phenomena was validated by performing oedometer tests on expansive clay specimens preceding the measurement of swelling pressure. Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar, Gujarat, India. This method is fundamen-tally similar to the Tuller and Or (2005) method that is considered to be applicable for soils with SSA < 200 m2=g(Tuller and Or 2005). Is sand an expansive soil? Expansive soils contain minerals, such as smectite clays, that are prone to absorb copious amounts of moisture. Cracks are a telling sign that expansive soils are present. After fitting, non-soil pixels (marked in a . New Delhi: BIS. Damages in retaining walls at the National Engineering School of Tunis (Manigniavy, 2021). Benign prostatic hyperplasia (BPH) describes the non-malignant enlargement of the prostate. FIGURE 1. Performing an oedometer test, those two indices can be determined for any saturated soil either expansive or non-expansive. Much of the world has at least some documentation of expansive soils. (A) Free swellTime curve of case 1 (only expansive clay) under 0.25kPa. 2, which main difference to Fig. (archaic) Not expensive; inexpensive. From this figure, it is seen that data of non-expansive soils, characterised by a swell pressure lower or equal to nearly 50kPa belong to the side where Cc/Cs ratio is greater than 10. A&M, Proceeding of the 2nd International Conference on Geotechnical Engineering ICGE10, 3me Confrence Maghrbine en Ingnierie Gotechnique CMIG13, Proceedings of the Golden Jubilee Indian Geotechnical Conference, Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Geotechnical Engineering ICGE13, National Engineering School of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar, No. All rights reserved. As shown in Figure 7B, the compression index Cc and the swelling index Cs are determined from the oedometer curve. Unexpensive adjective. Expansive soils are among the top natural hazards and phenomena such as earthquakes, hurricanes, floods and tornadoes (Chen, 1975). In many cases the homeowner noticed the problem, didnt realize its severity, didnt realize that it was progressing, and the problem progressed to a point where repair didnt make economic sense. TABLE 2. Large cracks and fissures can also develop in the soil. T. Am. J Geotech Test 28(3):240246, Greaves HM (1996) An introduction to lime stabilization.